Rabu, 18 Januari 2012


LANGUAGE CHOICE IN MULTILINGUAL COMMUNITIES

A. LANGUAGE CHOICE IN MULTILINGUAL COMMUNITIES

The first step in understanding what choices are available to speakers is to gain some idea of what languages and varieties are available to them in a particular social context. Context here is the varieties made available either officially or not within boundaries of a nation-state.
There are two ways that most studies of societal bilingualism use to determine the linguistic composition in a nation-state, large-scale survey and census statistic. A census statistic operates under limitations of time and money, and thus of many facets such as extent of interference between languages, switching, etc. cannot be investigated in any detail. On the other hand, large-scale survey can yield data on bilingualism for a population of much greater size than any individual linguist or team could hope to survey in a lifetime.
As a result, there are two kinds of bilingualism, de facto bilingualism and de jure bilingualism. There are often fewer bilingual individuals in de jure bilingual states than in those where de facto bilingualism occurs. In case of de jure bilingualism, knowledge about the demographic concentration of particular ethnic minorities is necessary for the implementation of language legislation Monolingualism : the ability to use a single language code รจ very common in many parts of the Western world.




B. VARIETY OR CODE

Kalala speaks an informal style of Shi, his tribal language, at home with his family, and he is familiar with the formal Shi used for wedding and funeral. He uses informal Shi in the market-place when he deals with vendors from his own ethnic group. When he wants it communicate with people from a different tribal group, he uses the lingua franca of the area, Swahili. He learned standard Zairean Swahili at school but the local market-place variety is a title different. It has its own distich linguistic features and even its own name – Kingwana. He used Kingawa to younger children and to adults he meets in the streets, as well as to people in the market-place.
Standar zairean Swahili, one of the national languages, is the languages used of Bukavu for most official transactions, despite the fact that French is the officials language of Zaire. Kalala used standar zairen swahii with officials in government offices when he has to fill in a form or pay a bill. He uses it even he tries for a job in a shop or an office, but there are very few jobs around. He spends most of his time with his friends, and with them he uses a special variety one code called indoubil. This is a variety which is used among the young people in bukavu, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds or tribal affiliations. It is used like in-group slang between young people in monolingual communities. Indoubil is based on Swahili but it has developed into a distinct variety or code in Zaire by drawing on languages like French, English, and Italian – all languages which can be read or heard in the multilingual city of bukavu.
If we list the varieties or codes he uses regularly, we find kalala’s linguistic repertoire includes three varieties of Swahili (standard zairean, local Swahili or kingwana, and indoubil) and two varieties of his tribal language, shi (a formal and an informal or casual style). The factors that lead kalala to choose one code rather than another are the kinds of social factors identified in the previous chapter as relevant to languages choice in speech communities throughout the word. Characteristics of the user or participants are relevant. Kalala’s own linguistic repertoire and the repertoire of the person he is talking to are basic limiting factors, for instance.
Table 2.1 illustrates the possibilities for communication when kalala wanted to talk to a soldier who had recently arrived in bukavu with his unit. Since he and his addressee share only code or variety, standard Swahili, there is not much choosier he wants to communicate referential content (as opposed to, say, insult, abuse or admiration, where any variety could carry the effective message)


C. DOMAINS OF LANGUAGE USE
A certain social factors – who you are talking to, the social context of the talk, the function and topic of the discussion – turn out be important an accounting for language choice in many different kinds of speech community. It has proved very useful, particularly when describing code choice in large speech communities, to look at ‘typical’ family interactions which involve these factors. We can imagine, for instance, ‘typical’ family interactions. It would be located in the setting of the home; the typical participans will obviously be family’s meal-time conversations, described in example 2, illustrate this pattern well. A number of such typical interactions have been identified as relevant in describing patterns of code choice in many speech communities. There are known as domains of language use, a term popularized by an American sociolinguist, Joshua fish man a domain involves typical interactions between typical participants in typical setting.

Domain is clearly a very general concept which draws on three important social factors in code choice – participants, setting and topic. It is useful for capturing broad generalizations about any speech community. Using information about the domains of use in a community it is possible to draw a very simple model summarizing the norms of language use for the community. This is often particularly useful for bilingual and multilingual speech communities
The information provided in example 4, for instance, identifies for domains and describes the variety or code appropriate to each.
Domain Variety/Code
Home/family Portuguese
Church/religion Portuguese
Work/employment English
School/education English

This information can also be summarized in a diagram or model, as figure 2.1 (overleaf) illustrates.
While it obviously oversimplifies the complexity of bilingual interaction, nevertheless a model like this is useful a number of ways. first it forces us to be very clear about which domains and varieties are relevant to language choice. A second reason why an explicit model is useful is that it provides a clear basis for comparing pattern of code choice in different speech communities. Models make it easy to compare the varieties appropriate in similar domains in different speech communities.

The status relationship between people may be relevant in the selecting the appropriate code. Another relevant factor is the function or goal of the interactions. What is the language being used for? Is the speaker asking a favour or giving orders to someone?
So in describing the patterns of code use of particular communities, the relevant social factors may not fit neatly into institutionalized domain. As we have seen, more specific social factors often need to be included, and a range of social dimensions may need to be considered too. The aim of any description is to represent the language patterns of the community accurately. If the model does not do that, it needs to be modified. Te only limitation is one usefulness. If a model gets too complicated and includes too many specific points, it loses its value as a method of capturing generalizations.

CHAPTER III
CLOSING

A. CONCLUSION
Base on data in chapter II, the writer can take the conclusion that In multilingual communities, more than one language is used. It means that people living. In this situation may speak more than one language. In multilingual communities, speakers switch among languages or varieties as monolinguals switch among styles. Language choice is not arbitrary and not all speech communities are organized in the same way. Through the selection of one language over another or one variety of the same language over another speakers display what may be called ‘acts of identity’, choosing the groups with whom they wish to identity.

B. SUGGESTION
First of all, the writer suggest to the reader especially reader and learners of English, know where she or he live with multilingual communities. They have to know what the variety or code should they use in a community. So that, they can make a good communication. The writer also suggests that the others students or learners are interested to analyze this topic from different point of view in order to get a good description and a clearer explanation of the language choice in multilingual communities.
The writer is aware that she is not a perfect person on account of her limited knowledge and experience in writing thesis. So that, writer suggest to the reader to give her a good criticism that can improve this writing.


BIBLIOGRAPHY


Holmes, Janet. 2000. An introduction to sociolinguistics. Second edition Wellington: Pearson
,http://tefltere.blogspot.com/2009/05/language-choice-inmultilingual.html
,http://imoed-forum.blogspot.com/2009/11/in-multilingual-communities-speakers.html
,http://nyontekyuuk.blogspot.com/2011/05/language-choice-in-multilingual.html

Biography of
ROBERT FROST
Robert Frost

Robert Frost (1941)
Born Robert Lee Frost
March 26, 1874
San Francisco, California,
United States

Died January 29, 1963 (aged 88)
Boston, Massachusetts,
United States

Occupation Poet, playwright

________________________________________
Signature


"In three words I can sum up everything I've learned about life — It goes on" -- Robert Frost
Robert Lee Frost (March 26, 1874 – January 29, 1963) was an American poet. He is highly regarded for his realistic depictions of rural life and his command of American colloquial speech. His work frequently employed settings from rural life in New England in the early twentieth century, using them to examine complex social and philosophical themes. A popular and often-quoted poet, Frost was honored frequently during his lifetime, receiving four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry.

A. EARLY YEARS (Robert Frost, circa 1910)
Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, California, to journalist William Prescott Frost, Jr., and Isabelle Moodie.[1] His mother was of Scottish descent, and his father descended from Nicholas Frost of Tiverton, Devon, England, who had sailed to New Hampshire in 1634 on the Wolfrana.
Frost's father was a teacher and later an editor of the San Francisco Evening Bulletin (which later merged with the San Francisco Examiner), and an unsuccessful candidate for city tax collector. After his death on May 5, 1885, the family moved across the country to Lawrence, Massachusetts, under the patronage of (Robert's grandfather) William Frost, Sr., who was an overseer at a New England mill. Frost graduated from Lawrence High School in 1892.[2] Frost's mother joined the Swedenborgian church and had him baptized in it, but he left it as an adult.

B. ADULT YEARS
This is a stone wall at Frost's far m in Derry, New Hampshire, however, Frost was inspired to write "Mending Wall" by various walls he saw in Fife, Scotland. In 1894 he sold his first poem, "My Butterfly. An Elegy" (published in the November 8, 1894, edition of the New York Independent) for $15 - equivalent in spending power to at least $300 today. Proud of his accomplishment, he proposed marriage to Elinor Miriam White, but she demurred, wanting to finish college (at St. Lawrence University) before they married. Frost then went on an excursion to the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and asked Elinor again upon his return. Having graduated, she agreed, and they were married at Lawrence, Massachusetts on December 19, 1895.(Thompson and Meyers)
Frost attended Harvard University from 1897–1899, but he left voluntarily due to illness Shortly before dying, Robert's grandfather purchased a farmfor Robert and Elinor in Derry, New Hampshire; and Robert worked the farm for nine years, while writing early in the mornings and producing many of the poems that would later become famous. Ultimately his farming proved unsuccessful and he returned to the field of education as an English teacher at New Hampshire's Pinkerton Academy from 1906 to 1911, then at the New Hampshire Normal School (now Plymouth State University) in Plymouth, New Hampshire.
In 1912 Frost sailed with his family to Great Britain, settling first in Beaconsfield, a small town outside London. His first book of poetry, A Boy's Will, was published the next year. In England he made some important acquaintances, including Edward Thomas (a member of the group known as the Dymock Poets), T.E. Hulme, and Ezra Pound. Although Pound would become the first American to write a (favorable) review of Frost's work, Frost later resented Pound's attempts to manipulate his American prosody. Frost met or befriended many contemporary poets in England, especially after his first two poetry volumes were published in London in 1913 (A Boy's Will) and 1914 (North of Boston).

C. PERSONAL LIFE
Robert Frost's personal life was plagued with grief and loss. In 1885 when Frost was 11, his father died of tuberculosis, leaving the family with just eight dollars. Frost's mother died of cancer in 1900. In 1920, Frost had to commit his younger sister Jeanie to a mental hospital, where she died nine years later. Mental illness apparently ran in Frost's family, as both he and his mother suffered from depression, and his daughter Irma was committed to a mental hospital in 1947. Frost's wife, Elinor, also experienced bouts of depression.
Elinor and Robert Frost had six children: son Elliot (1896–1904, died of cholera); daughter Lesley Frost Ballantine (1899–1983); son Carol (1902–1940, committed suicide); daughter Irma (1903–1967); daughter Marjorie (1905–1934, died as a result of puerperal fever after childbirth); and daughter Elinor Bettina (died just three days after her birth in 1907). Only Lesley and Irma outlived their father. Frost's wife, who had heart problems throughout her life, developed breast cancer in 1937, and died of heart failure in 1938.

D. LITERARY WORKS
POEMS
 The Cow in Apple-Time
 The Death of the Hired Man
 Dust of Snow
 The Egg and the Machine
 Evening in a Sugar Orchard
 The Exposed Nest
 The Fear
 Fire and Ice (1920)
  In a Disused Graveyard
 In a Poem
 In Hardwood Groves
 In Neglect
 In White (Frost's Early Version of "Design")
 Into My Own
 A Late Walk  The Armful
 The Rose Family
 Rose Pogonias
 The Runaway
 The Secret Sits
 The Self-Seeker
 A Servant to Servants
 The Silken Tent
POETRY COLLECTIONS
 New Hampshire (Holt, 1923; Grant Richards, 1924)
 Several Short Poems (Holt, 1924)[1]
 Selected Poems (Holt, 1928)
 West-Running Brook (Holt, 1928? 1929)
 The Lovely Shall Be Choosers (Random House, 1929)
PLAYS
 A Way Out: A One Act Play (Harbor Press, 1929).
 The Cow's in the Corn: A One Act Irish Play in Rhyme (Slide Mountain Press, 1929).
 A Masque of Reason (Holt, 1945).
 A Masque of Mercy (Holt, 1947).
PROSE
 The Letters of Robert Frost to Louis Untermeyer (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963; Cape, 1964).
 Robert Frost and John Bartlett: The Record of a Friendship, by Margaret Bartlett Anderson (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963).
 Selected Letters of Robert Frost (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1964).
 Interviews with Robert Frost (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1966; Cape, 1967).
 Family Letters of Robert and Elinor Frost (State University of New York Press, 1972).

FIRE & ICE
Some say the world will end in fire
Some say in ice
From what I’ve tasted of desire
I hold with those who favor five.
But if it had to perish twice,
I think I know enough of hate
To say that for destruction ice
Is also great
And would suffice